Experiencing U.S. Expansion: Southern Arizona

1. What were the two broad groupings of Native Americans in southern Arizona when the Spanish arrived?

Broad Group 1   Name for Self:   O’ odham               Spanish Name(s): Pima and Papago

Broad Group 2   Name for self:     Nnee             Spanish Name(s): Apache

2. How did the O’odham show their unwillingness to fully embrace the Spanish missions?

Although at first the O’odham welcomed the missions believing that the Catholic priests were healers who could help the O’odham against diseases and although they appreciated the other resources (food and tools) provided by the missionaries, the gifts were not free. The Spanish wanted their converts to work in the fields and their livestock used up valuable water resources. The Spanish tried to stop the O’odham from practicing their religion and the O’odham who came in contact with the Spanish had a higher risk of disease. Some O’odham stayed at the mission but others expressed their dissatisfaction by moving to the desert, visiting Spanish settlements only during times of need or yearly migration. The Spanish for their part often expressed frustration at the O’odham unwillingness to take park of their “civilizing project.”

3. Why did Apache groups raid Spanish settlements?

Initially the Apaches did not view raiding as stealing since they did not view animals as property. The harsh response of the Spanish quickly led them to view raiding as taking an enemies’ property. Once they began to realize the Spanish were their enemy, they began stealing their goods in order to survive the harsh environment they lived in.

4. What was the cycle of violence?

The cycle of violence occurred because tribes like the Apache and the O’odham went to war to make amends for wrongs committed against them. Military campaigns against the Apache would then encourage more violence rather than less. The cycle of violence was one group’s violent interaction with another creating another violent action and another rather than stopping the violence.

5. How did Spanish and Apache views of the peace created by the establicimientos de paz differ?

The Spanish believed they had ushered in a period of peace but it may be that they had just become more receptive to the Apache’s own attempts at peace. For the Apaches they believed this period to be a peace among only local bands and local communities and the peace was maintained through obligations. The Spanish gave them rations and the Apaches provided military assistance.